Yerevan's best kept secret?: The Gök (Blue) Mosque

Yerevan's unique mosque is a surprisingly imposing religious complex covering more than 70,000 sq.ft of prime land in the Center of the capital. Being an Iranian mosque, it follows the Twelver Shi'ite branch of Islam, as Shi'ism was proclaimed state religion of the Persia by the Safavid Empire from the early 16th century and on. (Photo: SasunsyDavit)

The tiny Republic of Armenia never ceases to amaze and surprise the world with its vast cultural heritage and important landmarks disproportionate to its size. The landlocked country in the Caucasus in the Highlands of biblical Mount Ararat has an area of under 30,000 km.sq. with a population of around 3 million. Since the fall of the Soviet bloc in 1991 it regained its independence and now is being discovered by visitors and investors from around the Globe.

Understandably the capital Yerevan is the magnet attracting the new investments, developments and the lion's share of all the visitors who comb the country and are left amazed by the vast variety of natural beauties and the cultural heritage that the country has to offer. Yet, quite amazingly, one if the best kept secrets of Armenia's Capital Yerevan seems to evade most tourists, even many locals.

"So you stayed at the Marriott Hotel in the city center. Did you also visit the nearby Blue Mosque?", I would ask out of curiosity.

-"What mosque? There are no mosques we know of in Yerevan" is the most frequent answer I get.

Yet this big Yerevan mosque is right there, just a few hundred feet away from Armenia's "Point Zero", the epicenter of the country: the Republic square (Hanrapetutyan Hrabarag). Moreover, It is a pretty imposing and rather pleasing complex just a heartbeat away from the Opera or the Marriott. I have literally seen thousands of photographs of every relevant and irrelevant structure and site in Yerevan. Every little commemorative palque, statue, fountain, street corner is proudly photographed by the visitors, but I have never seen one photo of this proud Mosque.

No wonder people miss this unique mosque. It is right opposite the main popular produce market on the Mashdots avenue, but it is hidden almost entirely behind rather ugly apartment buildings that surround it completely (see map below).

Yerevan's unique mosque is nicknamed "Blue", surely because of the predominant color of the entrance and the exterior tiles. (Photo: SasunsyDavit)

This only surviving mosque in Yerevan is called the the Gök mosque (Blue or Sky Blue Mosque), known or Kapuyt Mezgit (Կապոյտ մզկիթ) in Armenian. It sits on an imposing 75,000 sq.ft of land, has an inner courtyard, meeting halls as well as a theological school (madrasa). The single brick and tile laden minaret towers over the complex.

The exact origins of the mosque may be little fuzzy, but it was certainly constructed to its present dimensions in around 1764 and completed within the same decade.The mosque is said to have been commissioned under the patronage of the local Governor or ruler Hussein Ali Khan. That was of course a period of yet another Persian dominion over the eastern Armenian territories after it was taken from the Ottoman Empire.  At the time Yerevan was a provincial town, probably with 20,000 inhabitants but was nonetheless influential, with the Armenian Apostolic Holy Seat at Etchmiadzin  just a short distance away. 

Yerevan and Eastern Armenia of course eventually fell under Russian influence and direct rule after 1827 and the Treaty of Turkmenchay, which gave Russia its modern zones of influence relative to Persia and Turkey of the day. This treaty came as a result of the Russo-Persian wars which resulted in crushing defeats for Iran. Turkmenchay is a town in the Azerbaijan province of modern Iran, where the defeated Persians signed and recognized the Imperial Russian dominion over the "Yerevan", "Nakhitchevan" and "Talish" Khanates (administrative provinces under the authority of a Khan). One of the the main results of the treaty was the establishment of the Arax river (Araz, Արաքս)  as the recognized boundary between Russian zone of direct influence and Iran. This is still true today, as Arax forms the actual borders between Azerbaijan and Iran and southern Armenia.

                                     (Click on photo to enlarge for details) 

Yerevan: The Persian mosque called the Gök Jamii (Blue  Mosque) can be seen as the black dot 24 in the center. Note how it is pretty much hidden by all the surrounding Apartments despite its central location. It is only one block away from the Hanraptutyun (Republic) square, the "Point Zero" of Armenia (at the center right in yellow). Marriott Yerevan, formerly "Armenia" hotel is the number 22. Next up is the Ministry of Foreign affairs.

According to some reliable sources, there were around 10 functional mosques in the Yerevan region before the arrival of the Russians. These mosques were eventually abandoned or demolished except of course the Blue Mosque. During the Soviet era, this mosque suffered the same tragic fate as most of the churches in the deeply christian tiny country of Armenia. The communists implemented extreme secular policies, forcibly closing churches and putting all religious institutions under heavy pressure. The Blue Mosque was of course no exception and was in pitiful condition as well during these communist dark ages. After the fall of the Soviet Union the mosque underwent radical and somehow controversial restoration with funding provided by the Iranian Government. Some critics argued the restorations were not truthful to the original spirit of the mosque.

The very intriguing question as to why the Yerevan Blue mosque is surrounded from all sides with apartments buildings and thus literally hidden from view except a rather modest entrance on the Mashdotz avenue?  The first logical explanation would be to assume that there was a certain bigotry or conspiracy on the part of the Armenians to ''neutralize'' the Muslim Mosque from general view. In fact the encirclement of the mosque by apartment buildings is almost complete. But it is very safe to say that there was no "foul play" involved on the part of the Christian Armenians. On the contrary, care was exercised to include the whole complex in the new block without any architectural "dissections".

Armenia's capital:  Yerevan in the shadow of the snow-capped heights of Mount Ararat, where it is said Biblical Noah's Ark landed escaping the Great Flood. Yerevan's modern urban plan is most obvious with this aerial view. The Ararat mountain with its two peaks has always been at the very center of Armenian history and identity and is sacred to its people. Today it lies in Turkey, just across the border. Alexander Tamanian drew the modern Yerevan city plans (bottom)

The simple explanation of the mosque's bizarre encirclement is that Yerevan underwent a major urban plan during the Soviet times. The city center was completely overhauled and redesigned, just the same way say Baron Haussman transformed central Paris arteries during the 19th century. Renowned architects (especially Alexander Tamanian) undertook the major task of modernizing Yerevan and the new general plan was executed (see Yerevan city map above for the modern design). Therefore the Blue mosque happened to fall in the middle of a new grid or block and was surrounded by new buildings along the new avenues. The blue Mosque was preserved.  In any case, destroying it would have been both stupid and criminal.

Yerevan's best kept secret?: The apartment buildings completely encircle the mosque and make it almost impossible for an outside passer-by to see it, even from the major Mashdots or Khorenatsi avenues. Yet this mosque is a joy to see, appreciate and pay a visit.

When I discovered this mosque while trying to find a shortcut from the Mashdotz avenue to my hotel in the mid nineties, the exterior was being repaired by at least six workers albeit with rather primitive methods and equipments. The pace of the works seemed very slow albeit continuous. The mosque is presently functional and is an important meeting point for the local tiny Muslim population and expatriate students studying in Armenian Universities.

Is the Yerevan Blue Mosque a masterpiece in Persian Shiite Islamic architecture? Not so by any stretch of imagination. However it is a historical place of worship that deserves a visit, a photo or two and all the care the Armenian people and Government can give to this unique mosque of the Capital.

The recent referendum in Switzerland imposing a ban on the construction of minarets next to the mosques was a sure indication of the needless and somehow understandable but unnecessary and often ridiculous clashes between these two great monotheistic religions: Islam and Christianity. In this late Swiss episode many protest voices were heard, but similar attitudes of intolerance and exclusion exists all around the world. In Saudi Arabia, for instance, existing churches do not even look like actual churches from the exterior. No crosses are allowed, no visible signs such as stained glasses or statues. Same story on a lesser extent in Kuwait City, where the main Church next to the Sheraton had no cross as not to insult the locals. In some of these these countries the construction and maintenance of any Christian worship place faces more hurdles than the erection of the Great Wall of China!

The landscaping around the perimeter is a disaster, yet seemingly "normal" and somehow acceptable for that part of the world. Fortunately, the "exotic" charm of this mosque is not lost. The brick minaret with staggered patterns is typical of Persian-Mesopotamian traditions.   

The Saudis, for example, have imposed a series of non surmountable pre-conditions effectively banning any church constructions. At the core of all this is their insistence that the Catholic church in particular somehow "recognize the prophet Mohamed", even though unclear in what exact capacity. Such conditions are vague and poisonous. Essential human rights and the freedom of all people to practice their  faith freely must be beyond any ridiculous restrictions from all sides. The same is true to the Muslim communities that may suffer unnecessary conditions, harassment, discrimination and exaggerated sets of rules and regulations here and there. 

In this day and age when religious intolerance is growing like a cancer both in East and West, the World deserves more positive winds of openness, goodwill and a minimum of tolerance. Armenians have had major issues with peoples acting in the name of Islam. Armenians have suffered immensely and have paid the ultimate price of abuses perpetrated against them in the name of religious correctness. This is the reason why the recent restoration and the preservation of this Blue mosque in the middle of Yerevan should serve as an example of tolerance and respect towards minorities to others. Armenian churches are crumbling both in  Turkey and even in Christian Georgia (Capital: Tbilisi), where the central government has to come clean and act responsibly towards its minorities.

In any case, it is very clear that Yerevan is a richer place with this Blue mosque than without it.

The Blue Mosque mosque complex from the back oozes Persian architectural forms, even though not in its purest forms. The finishing is rough, but functionality and cost cutting consideration obviously have prevailed. The  Yerevan mosque should not be confused with the Blue Mosque of Istanbul, the incredible "Sultanahmet" with its six minarets, an architectural masterpiece of the highest order. Another famous "Blue mosque" of course is in Tabriz (Iran) which was heavily damaged by an earthquake in 1779 and only recently mostly repaired.

Minimalistic approach: The interior of the Yerevan Blue Mosque is beautiful in its simplicity yet lacks the "wow" factor. No interior tiles or typical Islamic calligraphy in this part. The Mihrab (the niche in the wall indicating the direction of Mecca) and the Minbar (the pulpit with stairs for the Imam's sermon) are very simple and functional. The carpet has patterns marking individual worshipers allocated floor space and prayer direction.

 

 Yerevan, Armenia circa 1672, then till under Persian suzerainty until 1827. It was a provincial city. In early 20th century and during the Armenian genocide of 1915 thousands of refugees and survivors found refuge there and eventually it became the Capital of the First Republic of Armenia proclaimed in May 28, 1918. It has remained so since and today it has an estimated population of 1.2 million. 

©Krikor Tersakian, Dec. 2009

Editor's notes:  

• Note: Armenia has very rich historical monuments and can be regarded as an open air museum. Day trips from Yerevan can take the visitors to almost all destinations. Armenia was the first nation to adopt Christianity as a state religion in AD 301. Thousand year old churches, Stone crosses (Khatchkars) and other monuments are there to be discovered and awe any visitor. Since the fall of the Soviet Union it is an independent state again and an emerging democracy. Three sites in modern Armenia are included on the UNESCO World Heritage Site list, having outstanding universal value and meeting the tough selection criteria. Links to the UNESCO website:


• Monasteries of Haghpat and Sanahin
  
  


• Cathedral and Churches of Echmiatsin and the Archaeological Site of Zvartnots


• Monastery of Geghard and the Upper Azat Valley

Photo: Geghard or Keghart rock-carved monastery

The Istanbul Pogroms of 1955: The tragic expulsion of the Greeks

The 1955 Istanbul Pogroms by Turkish mobs: They attacked mostly Greeks, but also the Armenians, and Jews. An estimated 15 were killed. More than 3500 homes and 5000 shops were destroyed . It was the end of the Greek community's significant presence since the ancient times.

The 6 September 1955 was a very black day indeed. A day when thousands of organized Turkish mobs targeted mainly the Greek community but also other minorities in Istanbul with the clear intent to do as much harm as possible. They burned, looted and destroyed thousands of previously marked and identified businesses belonging to Greeks and also to Armenians. They desecrated cemeteries, attacked 72 churches, hundreds of homes, killing at least 15 innocent people. Even more tragically, these pogroms put an end to any significant Greek presence in the city since thousands of years. The numbers of Greeks dropped rapidly after these attacks and today there are fewer than 1500 mostly elderly Greeks left. 

It was the end of what was left of an all encompassing and historical Constantinople-Istanbul. These 1955 attacks were dubbed the "Greek Kristallnacht", echoing the tragic night the Jews and their businesses were attacked by Nazi thugs in 1938 in a prelude of much more serious assault hat followed.(Kristallnacht or Crystal Night refers to the piles of broken glass strewn on the sidewalks and streets after the Nazi attacks on November 9, 1938).

Who could have designed such an outrageous attack on unarmed and unprotected minorities in the metropolis and how come the authorities did not intervene and let the rioters execute their plans with such vast magnitude and total impunity? 

September 1955: The rioters did everything to destroy the maximum possible within the shortest period of time. They knew that the police were not about to intervene, but had to act fast nonetheless. Their message to the Greek community was "We are throwing you out Now". These savage perpetrators were the most "active" in the Beyoglu/ Pera area. They damaged much more than just property: They killed what was left of Istanbul's cosmopolitan spirit and history.

The Istanbul Pogrom are also known as the Istanbul Riots, or the Σεπτεμβριανά in Greek and the 6-7 Eylul Olayları in Turkish (both literally Events of September). It was a pogrom directed primarily at Istanbul’s 100,000-strong Greek minority. Jews and Armenians living in the city and their businesses were also targeted in the pogrom, which was orchestrated by the Demokrat Parti-government of Turkish Prime Minister Adnan Menderes along with the political, bureaucratic and military establishment, that is mysteriously called Dervin Devlet or the Deep State. But how did it all start and why?

Prior to the actual pogroms, the tensions between Greece and Turkey had risen to new heights over the Cyprus impasse. Tensions were boiling over on both sides as the Greek Cypriots National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (known as EOKA) were engaging in an open armed struggle against the British colonial powers in order to achieve the unification of their Island with Greece. Cyprus was the issue but the relations between Turks and Greeks needs no introduction. These Greece-Cyprus unification campaigns were of course totally unacceptable to Ankara. Turkish anti Greek nationalist sentiments were rising as high as the economic inflation in Turkey... The Turks were furious and various groups were staging all kinds of protests against the Greeks and their apparent support of the Cyprus unification plans and actions. The tensions were very high indeed, but the actual pogroms needed a sparking plug to light the fire fueled by this explosive mixture of misinformation, cheap propaganda, political manipulation, religious intolerance and plain ignorance.

The needed spark plug was indeed missing, but the Turkish authorities or Services did their job and devised a workable plot: A bomb was sent secretly from Turkey to the Greek city of Salonika and set to target Turkish leader Mustafa Kemal Ataturk's birthplace in that city. That building was serving as the Turkish Consulate at that time. The news of such an intended "Greek" or "Rumeli" attack on Ataturk's sacrosanct birthplace (and Turkish consulate) was surely a very convenient way for the authorities to start the planned pogrom in Istanbul against the local Greek population. The "Greeks are attacking Ataturk and Turkey" was a pretty good slogan or rallying cry to start the attacks in Istanbul.

The actual riots started at 5.50pm on Sept. 6 1955, when thousands of these rioters arrived mainly to the Beyoglu district. They were mostly bused or taxied from the western Anatolia. There are reports that at least 500 of them were from the Eksisehir area, along with their party officials and "technical support" and "supervision" staff. They were all promised money for their efforts as well as booty and the satisfaction of "teaching the enemy a historical lesson".

The mobs were also well equipped and informed with specific lists of addresses to attack. Some businesses or homes were even pre-marked to facilitate the targeted attacks. The hundreds of rioters were divided into 40-50 men contingents and dispatched to various areas along with their band leaders. On the ''logistics'' front, buses belonging to municipalities were parked in strategic locations in order to hand out hammers, crowbars, gasoline and others tools of destruction to these rioters.

1955 pogroms: A destroyed and desecrated Greek cemetery after some friendly visit from the mob acting to inflict the most damage to the community in the shortest possible time...

The rioters soon started to smash everything they could. They destroyed the metal doors, ransacked, pillaged and set on fire everything on their lists. The looting was incredible: businesses were totally emptied of their merchandise, stolen goods taken away in trucks and the locations destroyed. Churches, stores, apartments, cemeteries: nothing was spared. The attackers came wave after wave, did their damage, and left. The second wave, the third wave, while the police or the army were nowhere to be seen. After all, this was a governmental plan, even though executed by "civilians" as a popular outburst against the Rumeli (Greek orthodox) "enemy" within the Turkish Republic. "Death to Gyavurs" and "Kill the Greeks" were the most common slogans chanted by these provincial henchmen.

The pogromist were not instructed to kill, but they still managed to kill more than 15 through beatings and arson. In total 73 churches, 20 factories. 1000 homes and more than 20 schools were attacked over and above 5000 properties looted, burned or destroyed. The majority of attacks were in Istanbul but there were also attacks elsewhere, like Izmir. Exact statistics are impossible, because statistics need data collection and no data was collected of course...The riots officially ceased after midnight, or more precisely at 2.00 am. of September 7, 1955 when the Turkish Army finally moved in and kindly urged the rioters to leave. Martial law was also declared, but all this was already too little to late. That military intervention was like the final act of the burlesque tragedy-comedy. The curtain came down, and another very clack chapter was written in the history books. 

Five years later, the Prime Minister of the day Adnan Menderes and his hard-line Foreign Affairs minister Fatin Zorlu were arrested along with other Demokrat Parti. They were arrested and put collectively to trial after the Army took powers and deposed the Government on 27 May 1960. Menderes was jailed in the island of Yessiada near Istanbul where he faced various charges and a trial, including accusations about the organization and execution of the Istanbul pogroms. The military trials were not "open", but it is reported that Minister Zorlu's lawyer claimed or admitted that the pogroms were all orchestrated and that effectively countless thousands were brought to Istanbul from areas in a radius of 60 km around the city.

Menderes was found guilty and executed at the gallows on 17 September 1961 on the island of Imrali. He was pardoned posthumously in 1990, his remains moved to a private mausoleum and even had an International Airport (Izmir) renamed after him! (Note: it is interesting that presently P.K.K. leader Abdullah Ocalan is the lone prisoner on this infamous island of Imrali, in the sea of Marmara where Menderes was executed).

The 1955 rioters in very celebratory mood during their rampage while, below...

 

...The Greek Patriarch Athenagoras is inspecting and lamenting in a desecrated Orthodox church in Istanbul. He was a lonely figure indeed and did not get much help or protection. The condemnations were not enough to rebuild all the destruction and halt the forced exodus of his flock.

Being married to a woman from Istanbul, I have heard and seen enough to fully grasp the very deep shock that the 1955 riots caused and still do. My late father- in- law Vahan used to say that the 1955 pogroms were as devastating as any other event, shaking not only the Greeks, but also the collective psyche and insecurity feeling of Jews and Armenians, prompting massive immigration in the months and years that followed these pogroms.

Although the Greeks had lost Constantinople in 1453, the conquering Ottomans  had not expelled the Greek community. Various restrictions were put in place but life went on for a considerable community that prospered throughout the centuries and greatly helped the development of the City. The establishment of the Greek state in 1829, the Greek-Turkish war of 1919-1922 were low points of course in Greek-Turkish relationships. In the 1930's the situation got even worse as very restrictive and racist laws were passed against the minorities, such as trade restriction, church and school jurisdiction limitations etc. The straw that broke the camel's back, however, was the Cyprus problem and the Istanbul riots that followed.

The Greek community fell from  more than 100,000 to under 1500 within a few years. When I dared to enter the Ortakoy Greek Orthodox church on a Sunday morning church "rush hour", this important church was completely empty. Not a soul except a young apprentice deacon saying prayers in Greek. Upon noticing me, he was so surprised that he slowly walked behind the altar to notify his senior that someone had in fact entered their church and was attending the mess. Subsequently they were both staring at me with suspicion while performing their duties, until I did the sign of cross and obviously appeased their worst fears.

My father in law Vahan who left Istanbul as a direct result of the Pogroms used to joke: "Today, it is much easier to find a Giraffe in Paris than a Greek in Istanbul". A sad fact that Istanbul owes to the orchestrated pogroms of 1955.

The Greek Consulate in Istanbul attacked in 2008 during protests against some Greek Government's internal policy. Workers clean red paint sprayed on the Consulate, which is located on Istiklal Caddesi the exact scene of the 1955 riots. 

The Armenian Patriarchate in Istanbul (Kum Kapi) is now under 24/7 police protection. The Patriarchate and the Istanbul Patriarch Moutafian himself were lately said to be on an underground group hit list. After conquering Constantinople in 1453, the Ottomans allowed the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate to remain in the city. In 1461 Sultan Mehmed II also invited the Armenians to establish their own Patriarchate as part of the Millet system. The Byzantines and Armenians always considered each other as heretical (since the split that occured at the council of Chalcedon in 451 a.d.) (photo: Krikor Tersakian)

The Istiklal Pera pedestrian street today, the neighborhood where most of the 1955 riots occurred: How many of these vibrant and happy looking youth actually know much about the tragic events that happened right there? Most of the younger generation did not know much about these tragic attacks until a movie called "Guz Sancisi" (by young Turkish woman director Tomris Giritlioglu) was screened in local theaters to great public surprise and success.(Photo: Krikor Tersakian, 2009)

Déjà-Vu in 2009: Istanbul’s Christian cemeteries are still being desecrated, despite the ugly 1955 legacy. This particular one is in historic cemetery near the ancient Valukli Monastery located outside the ancient walls of Theodosius. Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew (pictured) visiting the desecrated cemetery, surely wondering what more can still go wrong. 90 tombstones bearing a cross were destroyed. Some attacks may be driven by hatred while others have economic reasons, instigated by real state developers who badly want the cemeteries or church properties for their projects (Photo: Nikos Manginas)

© Krikor Tersakian, 2009

The Ottoman slave gathering system: The "Devsirme"

A Devsirme slave collecting officer with new "conscript" slaves gathered from christian conquered nations, especially in the Balkans. The girl probably ended up in a Harem and the boys trained as Janissary soldiers or civil servants somewhere in the Ottoman Empire.

One of the most misunderstood and controversial aspects of the Ottoman Empire was its disproportionate reliance on Orthodox Christian slaves forcibly gathered as "Blood Tax", mostly from various communities in the the Balkans under the control of the Sultan.

This forced slavery system of young Christian boys from conquered peoples was institutionalized, ruthlessly efficient and lasted for centuries. It was called Devsirme (pronounced devshirm'eh, Տեւշիրմէ), which means "gathering" in Turkish, as in gathering fruits and vegetables! A very imaginative word to describe the forced enslaving of tens of thousands of future soldiers and servants to their absolute owner, the Ottoman Sultan ! Devsirme became the "lubrication" process and the "oxygenation" of the of the Ottoman engine for centuries and was as cruelly effective at the service of Topkapi Palace and the Sublime Porte.

A Janissary officer recruiting devsirme for Sultan Suleyman I (1495-1566), (painter Ali Amir Beg, 1558), Topkapi Palace archives: This is probably be the best classical devsirme miniature. Note the fearful young christian boys (front) in red robes watched by the recruiting Ottoman officer (seated) and guards.

A young Devsirme slave in the "safe hands" Ottoman personnel. The very unhappy and insecure look of the young boy is worth a thousand words!

Some of the most enduring images generally associated with the Ottoman Empire can be surprisingly "romantic" in nature, when not talking about the human tragedies that occurred under their long rule. Loads of gorgeous women in the Harems, odalisques, backroom intrigues, hot Turkish baths and massages, eunuchs, colourful oriental rugs and costumes, the Orient Express, waterpipes with tobacco and other "exotic" smokes and noisy bazaars.

Orientalist painters like Eugene Delacroix and Ingres, writers such as Pierre Loti helped present the Ottoman lifestyle in the most mysterious and exotic way to the general public in the West. Beyond its undoubted exotic charm, life was not a paradise for the subjects and minorities under Ottoman rule. Nor was it particularly kind to the tens of thousands of christian families who had to surrender their child to the Blood Tax collector knocking on the door for a round of Devsirme!

Mehter military band is thought to be the oldest military marching band in the world. The band's music is known as Janissary music, as most of the band members belonged to that group of Devsirme soldiers. It is believed that the Band "Mehter" was sent to the founder of the Ottoman empire Osman Gazi by a Seljuk Sultan. It is said the band have played every day after the afternoon prayers for the Ottoman ruler. The music of the Mehter lost its appeal after Sultan Mahmud II got fed up with their abusive power of the Janissary army units and massacred them by cannons and swords in 1826!

Janissary army standard bearers and Mehter musicians spearheading another attack of the Ottoman army. The Janissaries were undoubtedly the most famous of all the devsirme slaves. Fiercely militant and increasingly rebellious with time, the Janissaries became like a State within the State and rioted on many occasions. They are also known to be responsible for deposing several Sultans until they met their fate.

Devsirme originated with the very fast and scary pace with which the Ottoman expanded their territories and built the Empire starting 14th century. It was the direct result of the military needs of their very fast growing empire: They lacked human resources to maintain and build a mightier military to cope with new realities. They needed devoted and trained administrators to run various government tasks throughout the territories. In one word they needed highly motivated, trained and loyal soldiers to serve the Sultan as well as scribes and civil servants to the Court.

The rules and regulations of the Devsirme were introduced under Sultan Murad II, about three decades before the fall of Constantinople (1453): The system was cruel in essence but very efficient and well designed. The Sultans and their advisers developed a system avoiding any hereditary Turkish aristocracy that could threaten their position on the long run. Therefore targeting only non-Muslims for the devsirme was easy, safe and convenient.

Initially devsirme appeared to be against the unwritten and written laws of Islam and had always its critics even within the inner circles of the Ottoman state. But the temptation for quick results was impossible to resist. The immediate needs of the empire were more important than any ethical and religious considerations. Devsirme slaves were collected by the thousands, the established quotas were enforced, the rules applied with no hesitation. Under the Muslim law a conquered people was at the mercy of the Sultan, and the Ottoman could kill or enslave anyway. Therefore enslaving young boys was promoted as a noble way to pledge total allegiance and serve the Sultan and a fast way to climb the social ladder.

Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres: "The Turkish Bath/ Le Bain Turc," 1862 . These concubines and odalisques were mostly devsirme female slaves in an Ottoman Imperial Serail (seraglio), commonly known as Harem (from the Arabic word word "Haram" as in forbidden quarters of a palace).




"Manicure in the Harem in a Seraglio" (serail). The most famous Harem was at the Topkapi palace, Istanbul.

Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824-1904) "Harem Pool" -Oil on canvas/ Hermitage museum, St Petersburg, Russia

The Blood Tax collectors would therefore visit each taxed Christian community and would gather approximately one in 10 to 14 young boys. Bulgaria, Serbs, Montenegrin, Albanians, Bosnian and others were all taxed. The Jews were practically excluded, while there have been reports of some Armenian conscripts into the system.

The age of the young conscripts was normally between 8 and 10, but it could be much older. The devsirme collection was performed by a higher officer (typically himself of devsirme origin!) who travelled from region to with with a secretary and soldiers. The boys collected through devsirme, were called either kul, ghilmán or oglan. They were immediately considered the exclusive properties (i.e. slaves) of the Sultan, and mostly lost contact with their families: They became quasi robotic Ottoman Androids, programmed to serve the Sultan and the Sultan only. The girls, much smaller in numbers, followed a supposedly lesser "training" and served in the Harem and the palaces as concubines, odalisques and assistants.

The boys were sorted into different groups according to their fitness etc and sent either to train as soldiers or other tasks in special institution, palaces or even farming families. The initial training took 3 to 7 years, and during this time the boys learned Turkish and Ottoman lifestyles.

The most famous army troops of the devsirme were of course the Janissary (yeni-çeri means new-troops, Ենիչերի). The name "new" indicates very well what they were the beginning: An alternative to the old regular army which was becoming not too reliable. The Sultan needed to have new troops and formed the Janissary corps, because the old army put together by free men from many different tribes and allegiances was difficult to keep under control.

The Janissary soon became famous for their military skills, their successes and abuses on the battle fronts and above all their absolute allegiance to the Sublime Porte. They were still subject to strict rules, limiting their freedom and demanding from them higher moral standards than usual in the Ottoman society. With time their reputation grew and they became almost synonymous with "cold blooded murdering soldier" in many nations under Ottoman rule.

A yeniceri (Janissary) band ready to spread fear and intimidate the conquered people.

Initially for around two hundred years the Janissary and other devsirme could not marry and they were not even allowed to grow beards, a privilege which was granted only to free men in the society. Those who were not destined to be soldiers followed a different path. After the initial round of training, some of these chosen acemi oglanlar, "foreign boys," were sent to Istanbul, where they worked in one of the sultan's gardens, shipyard or in the palace. In the palace they followed another round of education, normally extending beyond 14 years. 

The palace school educational system was the the main source for higher officials, scribes, administrators and future leaders in the Ottoman Empire. They were however restricted to the palace and could not leave the perimeter or be in touch with the outside world. Their training included languages (Arabic, Persian etc), religion (Koran, Sharia, Hadith), calligraphy etc. The children of any marriage involving devsirme were necessarily Muslim like their converted parent(s), and therefore they were excluded from the devsirme system and would join the "normal" population at large.

Some of these devsirme students ended up as viziers and grand viziers (the highest administrative position). The famous Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmet Pasha (1506-1573) was a devsirme of Serbian origin. Nevertheless, most devsirmeh were always practically considered as slaves to the Sultan despite their very high ranks. The Sultan could punish or even execute them without trial for an error or intrigue, real or perceived.
 
It is estimated that from the 15 th to the 17 century, between 200,000 and 300,000 devsirme boys were gathered, mostly in the Balkan countryside. Normally every 4 years, young minor Orthodox boys from the taxed communities were to be given to the Ottoman throne. Devsirme was promoted as a somehow honorable thing for the parents and a fast way to have a better life to the young children they gave to the tax collector. Being the "slave" of the sultan was considered to be an honor, as some of these slaves would eventually fill prestigious positions in the Ottoman society. The idea of devsirme being "good" for the kids was promoted as a golden opportunity for these boys guaranteeing them a safe and bright future as Sultan's slave and to get out of poverty. Bribes and other means of persuasion were also common to let the Christians parents give their sons to devsirme.

Corruption and lax lifestyle: Janissary relaxing and enjoying life. The increasingly lavish lifestyle of theses units became a problem for the Sultans. Many, if not most, of these elite legions were devsirme and became too powerful, almost a State within the State. They were seen as liabilities to the Sultans rather than as major assets like before. Their extermination was just a matter of time and came in early 19th century.

The end of the devsirme is generally associated with the decline and eventual massacre of the Janissaries. Already by the 17th century the Janissary legions were becoming a liability: strong, independent, they were dictating Ottoman policy, deposing Sultans at will, acting as landholders, staging several coups and interfering with the very basic rules of the devsirme. At the same time they were becoming ineffective on the battlefield. After the second battle of Vienna in 1683 the Empire started to decline fast and the Janissaries were acting more and more like the real power brokers than fighters. They also revolted on several occasions to get higher wages or to set their rules and conditions.

The Greek war for Independence (1821-1830) proved once again that the Janissaries were no longer the infallible force as they had been historically. Their end was fast approaching. In 1826 news spread out that the Sultan Mahmud II was taking the necessary steps to form new European style army units. As expected or hoped, the Janissaries were furious and revolted one more time. But this time the Sultan had other plans and was well prepared. As the rioting Janissaries were advancing on the Palace in Istanbul, their barracks near the Hippodrome (Atmeydani) were set in fire by heavy artillery loyal to the Sultan and more than 4000 Janissaries were massacres. Survivors were arrested and executed in various other locations. It is reported that the last Janissary units were executed in Thessaloniki, modern day Greece. With that the final chapter the devsirme system broke beyond repair.


Modern Mehter band of the Janissary units. They are based at Istanbul's Military museum (Askeri Muze). They are now ceremonial in nature and perform to the public almost daily. They also go on tours around the world as the world's oldest known military marching band.

The devsirme was the feeding mechanism to a general system called the Kul, that is the military and administative servitude. Devsirme was not the only slave generating mechanism in the Empire. Slaves for domestic tasks, the harem and the forced labour (mostly agricultural) always existed. The Kul and devsirme underwent major changes during the 19th century. The concepts of slavery, freedom, ownership and social status of the slaves became extremely complex and ambiguous within the Empire trying to reform itself.

The innovative and liberal Tanzimat reform program put in place from 1839 until 1876 was designed to "reorganize" the Ottoman society and government, including the now obsolete devsirme and the Kut. It was initiated on changes started by sultan Mahmud II and executed under sultan Abdulmecid I. It was initiated by reformists who understood why their Empire was growing weaker while neighboring countries were growing stronger. The Tanzimat was indeed of the highest importance to the survival of Ottoman Empire but failed miserably.

Tanzimat was opposed by the conservative forces, who also vehemently rejected any major reforms of the thorny slavery issue. In any case Tanzimat came too little too late to save the crumbling Empire and it totally collapsed with sultan Abdülaziz' abusive politics. Finally there was even less hope left when Abdülhamid II ascended the sultan throne in 1876 and executed some of the worst atrocities of the era. The rest is history. 

The devsirme was finally dead after long centuries, but its very controversial legacy continued for a long time both in modern Turkey and the Balkans. The divisive Ottoman heritage in the Balkans and Thrace is still present today. People wondering about some of the root causes of the ethnic and religious tensions between say Albanians, Serbs, Kosovars, Bosnians can do some reading to understand the issues of domination, forced conversions, devsirme and the like. There is never any smoke without fire.

Janissary army war and massacre scene through the eyes of yet another romantic European painter.


"Occupation of Yerevan, Armenia by the Ottoman army under Ferhad Pasha"(miniature by Nakkas Osman,1597).

© Krikor Tersakian, October 26, 2009 Montreal Canada